A two-minute visual history

The Forms
of Government

How humanity sorted who rules, and what each sorting showed.

Power was personal. It was sorted by number, then by cycle, then by how it is kept, then by what keeps it standing, then by why we obey. Today it seems to sit in several places.

Follow the question
A silver coin carrying the head of a Hellenistic king inside a wreath, power in one man's face
One man rules
A broken cup base with the name Themistocles scratched around it, a citizen's vote to send a man away
The city decides
From personal power to a question we can ask
ArchaiOptix · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Ancient Agora Museum, Athens · Public domain
A prehistoric rock painting of about twenty figures moving together, used as a marker for a group without a permanent ruler

The moment · the voice · the person Nagarjun Kandukuru · CC BY 2.0

01

Group

Before the state · prehistory

Before there were forms, there was the group.

Authority was probably personal and temporary. Someone led the hunt, someone settled a quarrel, someone spoke for the dead. It was attached to a person and to a moment, so there was nothing yet to classify.

Then someone sat down and counted
Marble bust of Aristotle, Palazzo Altemps, after a Greek original by Lysippos

Athens · 4th century BCE After Lysippos · Public domain

02

Number

Aristotle · c. 350 BCE

The first sorting counted the rulers.

Aristotle asked two questions at once. How many rule: one, few or many? And do they rule for everyone, or for themselves? Each answer to the first has a good form and a bad one.

ONEmonarchy, or tyranny FEWaristocracy, or oligarchy MANYpolity, or democracy
Read the Politics at Perseus
Then the good forms began to rot
A plaster model of Polybius made in nineteenth century Vienna, after the ancient stele from Kleitor

Rome seen by a Greek hostage Manfred Werner · CC BY-SA 3.0

03

Cycle

Polybius · 2nd century BCE

Then someone noticed that the forms turn.

Polybius described a wheel rather than a list. Each good form turns bad, the bad form is overthrown, and the next form takes its place, until the wheel comes round again. His answer was Rome: consuls, senate and assemblies checking one another, so that no single form can turn fully bad.

Read the Histories at Perseus
Then a book asked how power is kept

04

Hold

Machiavelli · 1513

The sorting dropped the question of virtue.

Machiavelli opens with two kinds of state only, republics and principalities, and sorts them by how power is acquired and kept. He describes what rulers do rather than what they ought to do. That move helped separate the study of government from the judgement of it, and may be why the book still shocks.

Read The Prince at Project Gutenberg
Then a form could fall from inside

05

Principle

Montesquieu · 1748

Each form needs something to keep it standing.

Montesquieu sorts three forms, and adds to each the passion it runs on. A form does not fall only when it is attacked. It falls when its principle is gone, when a republic stops caring for the common thing, when honour is only show, when fear is all that remains.

REPUBLICvirtue MONARCHYhonour DESPOTISMfear

The same book argues that climate shapes customs and forms of government. That part did not hold, and it is worth saying so on the page: a great classifier can be right about how things work and wrong about why.

Read De l’esprit des lois at Project Gutenberg
Then the answer had to come from us
Photograph of Max Weber in 1918

Germany · around 1918 Ernst Gottmann · Public domain

06

Obedience

Weber · early 20th century

The question moved from who rules to why we obey.

Weber sorts by the reason for obedience. We obey because it has always been so, or because of the person in front of us, or because a rule says the office may decide. The third answer builds the modern administration: what is owed is owed to a post, not to a man, and it ends when he leaves it.

TRADITIONit has always been so PERSONthis one, and no other RULEthe office may decide
Read Politik als Beruf at Wikisource
Then power spread out again
The Assembly Hall of the Palais des Nations in Geneva, used as a marker for authority held above and beside the single state

Geneva · today Ludovic Courtès · CC BY-SA 3.0

07

Layers

Now

Power seems spread across several places.

The nation state, one state and one people over one territory, is a recent arrangement rather than a law of nature. Empires ran states over many peoples for centuries. Today authority is spread again, and each layer decides something real about a life.

  • the state
  • the city
  • the zone with its own rules
  • the international body
  • the platform
  • the system that decides without being asked
The words this story leans on

A small vocabulary

Five words worth keeping apart

Regime

The arrangement of who holds power, and how it is taken, used and lost. It can change in a night.

State

The permanent organisation over a territory: administration, taxes, records, courts, and the force it claims as the only lawful one. It is built and lost slowly, and it can outlast several regimes.

Nation

A population that believes it forms one people. It is made over generations, by language, school and story, and it does not need to match a state.

Legitimacy

The reason people obey without being forced each time. Where it comes from is the question Weber put in place of the older ones.

Constitution

The rules that decide how other rules are made, and who may make them. A mixed constitution shares that power between several bodies on purpose.

Sources and limits

Instruments, not verdicts.

This page follows one question: how has humanity sorted who rules? Each classification is dated and belongs to its century. None of them is presented here as the truth, and the page takes no side on which form of government is better.